The ability to represent language graphically, to make language visible, stands as one of humanity’s greatest intellectual and cultural achievements. Given in conjunction with the special exhibit, Visible Language, this lecture explores how and why humans first invented writing by comparing the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Chinese, and Mesoamerican inventions–the four instances in history when writing was invented–out of nothing. In this lecture, Christopher Woods discusses cultural contexts and structural features of each of these systems, focusing on important similarities and differences between them.

UPDATE: A recent article discusses the positives and some negatives of the new exhibit.

As many readers are aware, Professor Muraoka has revised for a second time Paul Joüon’s classic Grammaire de l’hébreu biblique (Rome: Institut biblique pontifical, 1923).  This updated volume is available in a one volume hardback version published by the Pontifical Biblical Institute (2006).  Additionally, Logos Bible Software is developing an electronic version of the revised edition, and Mac users may add it to their Accordance software.  Both of which are less expensive than the actual print version and provide advanced searching and cross referencing. 

Abbreviations used:

          S        Subject

          O       Object

          V       Verb

          M       [Adverbial] Modifier

          P        Predicate (no explicit verbal element)

          IO      Indirect Object (*see note below*)

          OC     Object Complement

          SC      Subject Complement (*see note below*) 

Examples:

• Joshua 2:23

          וַיָּשֻׁ֜בוּ שְׁנֵ֤י הָֽאֲנָשִׁים

          And-they-returned the-two men.

          V-S

• Genesis 33:20

          וַיַּצֶּב־שָׁ֖ם מִזְבֵּ֑חַ

          And-he-built there an-altar.

          V-M-O

• Exodus 3:1

          וּמֹשֶׁ֗ה הָיָ֥ה רֹעֶ֛ה אֶת־צֹ֛אן יִתְר֥וֹ חֹתְנֹ֖ו כֹּהֵ֣ן מִדְיָ֑ן

Now-Moses was pasturing the-flock of-Jethro, his father-in-law, the-priest of-Midian.

S-V-O

• Ezekiel 4:10

          וּמַאֲכָֽלְךָ֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר תֹּאכֲלֶ֔נּוּ בְּמִשְׁק֕וֹל עֶשְׂרִ֥ים שֶׁ֖קֶל לַיּ֑וֹם

And-your-food which you-shall-eat-it [will be] by-weight twenty shekels for-each-day

          S-P

          Embedded Clause (תֹּאכֲלֶ֔נּוּ): V-O

Notes:

• Only explicit constituents (Subject, Object, Verb, etc.) are listed; when necessary elided constituents are placed in brackets [ ].
• Multiple modifiers will not be designated separately.
• Verbal Negation, though technically a modifier, is not marked.
• Conjunctions are ignored.
• The function of the relative particle is not designated in relative clauses.
• Multi-part verbs (e.g. composite tenses and verbal hendiadys) shall be marked as one verbal unit.
• The content of a quotation is considered the object of the verb of speech.
• Older posts may use the SC and IO designations; however, newer posts will designate these merely as O and M (respectively).

Vocabulary

Verse 4

            שׁביעי  ordinal number: “seventh”

            שׁבתון  noun: “Sabbath” (BDB, 992)

            זכרון  noun: “memorial” (BDB, 272)

            תדועה  noun: “blast (of trumpet/shofar)” (BDB, 930)

            מקדא  noun: “convocation”

Verse 5

            מלאכה  “work”

            עבדה  “labor”

Syntax & Misc.

Verse 3

• Sentence Typology 1 (וַיְדַבֵּ֥ר יְהוָ֖ה אֶל־מֹשֶׁ֥ה לֵּאמֹֽר): V-S-IO-M
• The object is the following quotation.
• Conjunctive dagesh, or conjunctivum, is regularly used when לאמר follows משׁה (cf. Exodus 6:10, 29; 15:24; GKC 20c n.2)

Verse 4

• Embedded Typology A (דַּבֵּ֛ר אֶל־בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל לֵאמֹ֑ר): V-IO-M-O
• Asyndeton marks the introduction of the direct speech.
• The quotation is further embedded.
• Embedded Typology i (בַּחֹ֨דֶשׁ הַשְּׁבִיעִ֜י בְּאֶחָ֣ד לַחֹ֗דֶשׁ יִהְיֶ֤ה לָכֶם֙ שַׁבָּת֔וֹן זִכְר֥וֹן תְּרוּעָ֖ה מִקְרָא־קֹֽדֶשׁ): M-V-M-SC-M
• The phrase, באחד לחדשׁ, refers to the “first day of the month.”
• The name Rosh Hashanah ראשׁ השׁנה is not found in the Hebrew Bible.
• The construct phrase, זכרון תרועה, may be understood as appositional—“a memorial with a trumpet blast.”

Verse 5

• Embedded Typology ii (כָּל־מְלֶ֥אכֶת עֲבֹדָ֖ה לֹ֣א תַעֲשׂ֑וּ): O-V
• Asyndeton explains further instructions for the observance.
• The construct is attributive, “laborious work.”
• Embedded Typology iii (וְהִקְרַבְתֶּ֥ם אִשֶּׁ֖ה לַיהוָֽה):  V-M
• The Hiphil of קרב implies the bringing of a sacrifice.

וַיְהִי בִּשְׁנַת אַרְבַּע לְדָרְיָוֶשׁ הַמֶּלֶךְ הָיָה דְבַר־יְהוָה אֶל־זְכַרְיָה בְּאַרְבָּעָה לַחֹדֶשׁ הַתְּשִׁעִי בְּכִסְלֵו׃ 2 וַיִּשְׁלַח בֵּית־אֵל שַׂר־אֶצֶר וְרֶגֶם מֶלֶךְ וַאֲנָשָׁיו לְחַלּוֹת אֶת־פְּנֵי יְהוָה׃ 3 לֵאמֹר אֶל־הַכֹּהֲנִים אֲשֶׁר לְבֵית־יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת וְאֶל־הַנְּבִיאִים לֵאמֹר הַאֶבְכֶּה בַּחֹדֶשׁ הַחֲמִשִׁי הִנָּזֵר כַּאֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי זֶה כַּמֶּה שָׁנִים׃   פ

Vocabulary

Verse 1

            דריושׁ  name: “Darius”

            זכריה  name: “Zechariah”

            תשׁיעי  ordinal: “ninth”

            כסלו  name (ninth month): “Chislev”

Verse 2

            שֹר־אצר  name: “Sharezer”

            רגם מלך  name: “Regem-melech”

            חלה  verb (Piel infinitive construct): “appease”

Verse 3

            בכה  verb: “weep”

            חמשׁי  ordinal: “fifth”

            נזר  verb (Niphal infinitive absolute): “consecrating oneself [by fasting]”

            כמה  “how many/often!”

Syntax & Miscellaneous

• Sentence Typology 1 (וַיְהִי בִּשְׁנַת אַרְבַּע לְדָרְיָוֶשׁ הַמֶּלֶךְ): V-M
• This may well be classified as an introductory temporal clause.
• Sentence Typology 2 (הָיָה דְבַר־יְהוָה אֶל־זְכַרְיָה בְּאַרְבָּעָה לַחֹדֶשׁ הַתְּשִׁעִי בְּכִסְלֵו): S-V-M
• Ordinal numbers are always used with months (GKC 134p).

Verse 2

• Sentence Typology 1 (וַיִּשְׁלַח בֵּית־אֵל שַׂר־אֶצֶר וְרֶגֶם מֶלֶךְ וַאֲנָשָׁיו לְחַלּוֹת אֶת־פְּנֵי יְהוָה): V-S-O-M
• The subject is the personification of Bethel (meaning: “[the people of] Bethel).
• The compound object includes three members.
• The infinitive clause modifies the finite verb, שׁלח.
• Embedded Typology A (לְחַלּוֹת אֶת־פְּנֵי יְהוָה): V-O

Verse 3

• Embedded Typology i (לֵאמֹר אֶל־הַכֹּהֲנִים אֲשֶׁר לְבֵית־יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת וְאֶל־הַנְּבִיאִים): V-IO-O
• The two infinitives, לאמר, to modify the previous infinitive, לחלות.
• The indirect object is compound.
• The use of the lamed preposition to describe the relationship of the priests (הכהנים) to the house of the Lord (בית־יהוה) is that they “belong to” the temple.
• The object (i.e. direct speech) follows the second לאמר.
• Embedded Typology ii (הַאֶבְכֶּה בַּחֹדֶשׁ הַחֲמִשִׁי הִנָּזֵר): V-M
• The initial he is an interrogative he.
• The beth preposition marks a temporal phrase.
• The reflexive verb, הנזר, serves to designate the attendant circumstances of the verb, אבכה (GKC 113h).  In English, a participle may best translate this constituent.
• Embedded Typology iii (כַּאֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי זֶה כַּמֶּה שָׁנִים): V-O-M
• The final phrase, כמה שׁנים “so many years,” is an adverbial modifier.

Vocabulary

Verse 17

            עפרון  name: “Ephron”

            מלכלה  name: “Machpelah”

            ממרא  name: “Mamre”

            מערה  noun: “cave” (BDB, 792)

            גבול  “territory, border”

Verse 18

            מקנה  “possession” (BDB, 889)

Verse 19

            שֹרה  name: “Sarah”

            מערה  noun: “cave” (BDB, 792)

            חברון  name: “Hebron”

            כנען  name: “Canaan”

Verse 20

            מערה  noun: “cave” (BDB, 792)

            אחזה  noun: “possession”

            קבר  noun: “burial site, grave”

Syntax & Misc.

Verse 17-18

• Sentence Typology 1 (וַיָּ֣קָם ׀ שְׂדֵ֣ה עֶפְר֗וֹן אֲשֶׁר֙ בַּמַּכְפֵּלָ֔ה אֲשֶׁ֖ר לִפְנֵ֣י מַמְרֵ֑א הַשָּׂדֶה֙ וְהַמְּעָרָ֣ה אֲשֶׁר־בּ֔וֹ וְכָל־הָעֵץ֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר בַּשָּׂדֶ֔ה אֲשֶׁ֥ר בְּכָל־גְּבֻל֖וֹ סָבִֽיב לְאַבְרָהָ֥ם לְמִקְנָ֖ה לְעֵינֵ֣י בְנֵי־חֵ֑ת בְּכֹ֖ל בָּאֵ֥י שַֽׁעַר־עִירֽוֹ): V-S-O-M
• The verbal idea of קום is used to express assurance of a purchase.
• Even though the relative clause, אֲשֶׁר֙ בַּמַּכְפֵּלָ֔ה, follows the latter member of the construct phrase, it is meant to modify the former.
• The subject is expanded in the later half of the verse with the reiteration of השֹדה.  The resulting compound subject contains three elements—שֹדה, מערה and כל־העץ.
• The object and modifying phrases are found in verse 18.
• Each of the three lamed prepositions in verse 18 functions in different capacities.  The first is sequenced with the verb to mark its object, אברהם.  Second designates purpose “for a possession,” and the last marks location “before the Hittites.”
• Embedded Typology 1 (בַּמַּכְפֵּלָ֔ה): P
• Embedded Typology 2 (לִפְנֵ֣י מַמְרֵ֑א): P
• Embedded Typology 1 (בּ֔וֹ): P
• The ms referent of the pronominal suffix is the original subject, שֹדה.
• Embedded Typology 1 (בַּשָּׂדֶ֔ה): P
• Sentence Typology 2 (בְּכָל־גְּבֻל֖וֹ סָבִֽיב): P
• The ms referent of the pronominal suffix is שֹדה.

Verse 19

• Sentence Typology 1 (וְאַחֲרֵי־כֵן֩ קָבַ֨ר אַבְרָהָ֜ם אֶת־שָׂרָ֣ה אִשְׁתּ֗וֹ אֶל־מְעָרַ֞ת שְׂדֵ֧ה הַמַּכְפֵּלָ֛ה עַל־פְּנֵ֥י מַמְרֵ֖א): M-V-S-M
• The particle, כֵּן, may function as a demonstrative referring to a previous event or action.
• The familial designation, אשׁתו, is in apposition to the proper name, שֹרה.
• The phrase, מְעָרַ֞ת שְׂדֵ֧ה הַמַּכְפֵּלָ֛ה, is a three member construct phrase.
• Sentence Typology 2 (הִ֣וא חֶבְר֑וֹן בְּאֶ֖רֶץ כְּנָֽעַן): S-P
• The asyndetic, verbless clause designates the location of the cave as near Hebron.

Verse 20

• Sentence Typology 1 (וַיָּ֨קָם הַשָּׂדֶ֜ה וְהַמְּעָרָ֧ה אֲשֶׁר־בּ֛וֹ לְאַבְרָהָ֖ם לַאֲחֻזַּת־קָ֑בֶר מֵאֵ֖ת בְּנֵי־חֵֽת): V-S-O-M
• This final clause serves as a summation of the property exchange with the sons of Heth (GKC 111k).
• Embedded Typology 1 (בּ֛וֹ): P
• The relative clause designates the relationship of המערה “the cave” to the pronominal antecedent, השֹדה “the field.”